Mongolia                   

History & Culture

HISTORY Archaeologists have discovered 500,000 year-old stone implements that are the remains of Mongolia's earliest inhabitants. Since the early primitive communal era, Mongols had lived independently in the neighborhood of such nomadic tribes as Turk and Khamnigan. In 209 BC, the Huns, who were by origin from ancient nomadic tribes such as Xianyu, Xianyung, Hun yi and Di, set up the first state in Central Asia.

The Hun State was equal in power to the Chinese states of Tsin and Han. Khan, the sovereign of the State of Han Xiao Wendi wrote to Shan Yu of the Hun State in Laoshan: "in accordance with the decree of his Majesty, the stat situated to the north of the Great Wall shall be governed by the decrees of Shan Yu, and the territory situated to the south of the Great Wall, peopled by those who wear tushmed belts and caps, shall be governed by me. Both the State of the Huns and the State of Han are powerful neighbor states".

CULTURE The land of Mongolia has a history and a culture that have been built up during the course of several thousand years of human habitation, and it is one of the cradles of civilization. Stone tools 500,000 years old have been found in Mongolia, proving that Man was settled in the area at that time, and that it was from Central Asia that he went on to the American continent. Early Man took the stones provided by nature and from them fashioned stone tools; as he began to acquire finer skills in the working of stone, he made not only weapons but also all kinds of jewelry, implements and stone monuments, and began to learn how to construct towns and villages.

The earliest stone monuments that are most commonly found in Mongolia today date from the bronze age. The nomadic herdsmen of those times constructed stone mounds and stone-flagged graves of great size, and used great skill in the beautiful execution of carved 'reindeer stones'. Such stone monuments were placed on the steppe, in valleys, in gullies or on the tops of small hills either singly or in groups of up to twenty stones, either as graves

or markers of dedicatory sites, and some of them still remain in their original positions. The 'reindeer stones' are between one and four meters high. The four sides of a long oblong stone are nicely trimmed and the total surface is divided vertically into three bands. All around the stone in the upper section are images of the sun and moon, and in the middle section are many deer, leaping and flying. The lower section is decorated with carvings of knives, swords, bows and quivers, battle axes, whetstones, hooks, mirrors and so on. HISTORY ...The territory of the Huns was vast and extended to the Great Wall in the South, the Lake of Baikal in the North, Hingan Hills in the East and Erchis river in the West. During the 7th-lOth centuries, the present Mongolian territory was inhabited by the Turkic, Uighur and Kirghiz tribes. But there is little information historic documents about the life of the Mongols at this period. During the 9th-10th centuries, the Kidans, who were a Mongolian -speaking tribe, established in the north of China a Great Liao State. At this time of the Kidans (Liao), the Chinese tribal states for the first time submitted to foreign supremacy, and the Chinese Khan officially recognized the Kidan Khan as "his father", and thus himself as "a son". During the 11th-12th centuries, the Mongol tribes came into history under the names Whole Mongolia, Tatar, Kerait, Jalair. At this time of intertribal struggle, a Mongol chieftain called Temudjin gathered various tribes under his leadership, named his state "Mongolia", and renamed himself "Genghis Khan". The difficult process of establishing the Mongolian State was finely described in the famous Mongolian document "Nuuts Tovchoo" (Secret History of the Mongols). In the 13th century Mongolia was one of the most powerful states in the world. All major world trade and political relations went through the capital of Mongolia of that time, Kara Khorino (which is situated in the present territory of the Mongolia), and the flow of ambassadors from France, sons of Georgian and Armenian sovereigns, Russian princes, and Chinese officials was unceasing. After having established the state, following the custom of the ancient nomads, Genghis Khan undertook campaigns against the neighboring states. As a result of the wars undertaken by Genghis Khan and his successors with the purpose of "conquering the whole world" Mongolia became a powerful empire, extending from the East China Sea to Western Europe, covering vast areas of Europe and Asia. After the death of the last Mongolian Emperor Mongke in 1259, the Mongol Empire broke up into the Golden Horde of Batuu Khan (Genghis Khan's grandson), inhabiting the Russian Kipchak steppe; the Kingdom of Tsagadai (Genghis Khan's son), who had conquered East Turkestan and Uzbek, and the Yuan State of Khubilai Khan, which included the Mongolian and Chinese territories. After the defeat in 1367 of the Mongolian Yuan State by the Chinese Min State, the Mongolian Khans returned from Beijing to their native territory. At this time Mongolia ceased to be the center of world trade and culture, but the Mongols retained their home territory. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the Mongols lost their previous unity and were divided into Eastern Mongols and Western Mongols (Oirat Mongols). Then in the 16th century the Eastern Mongols split up into Outer Mongolia (Khalh Mongolia) and Inner Mongolia. The Mongols waged war on each other, and dominance went first to Oirat Mongolia and then to East Mongolia. East Mongolia was the more powerful. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Zurchid tribe of Manchurians became powerful and established the State of Chin. The Manchurians subdued Inner Mongolia in the 1630s, Khalh Mongolia in 1691 and Oirat Mongolia in 1757. The 17th-20th century period was the most tragic for the Mongols. In fact, the Manchurians cut off the Mongolian State from world civilization for many centuries, and the Mongols remained as if on the inside of an inverted copper pot. At the beginning of the 20th century, the movement for the renascence of the Mongolian State led by Bogdo Khan spread widely like a fire, but was suppressed in 1911 by the Manchurian colonial domination. The Mongolian people led by Khalh Mongolian Javzandamba Khutagt (Bogdo Khan) established the Khanate uniting religion and state, and intended to unite all Mongolian-speaking people. But this aim remained unfulfilled because of the expansionist policy of the Tsarist Russia and China. In 1919 the Chinese government grossly violated the Russian, Chinese and Mongolian tripartite treaty of 1915, and with the aid of armed forces conquered the Mongolian State. This precipitated again the upsurge of the national liberation movement in the country, and so in 1921 Khalh Mongols under the direction of S. Danzan, D. Bodoo, and D. Sukhbaatar liberated our territory from the foreign conquerors and won our freedom. From 1921-1924 Mongolia was a republican Monarchy. In 1924, however, it became a Soviet-style Republic with one-party system which lasted until 1990. In July of 1990, the first democratic general election took place in Mongolia, and it has become, finally, a parliamentary republic with president and multi-party system. At present, Mongolia is making a transition from the centrally.     CULTURE ...Around the city was a large square wall, in the middle of each side of which was a gate, beside which all kinds of goods and livestock were bartered, bought and sold. Within the city were separate districts occupied by artisans and craftsmen, traders, administrators and private citizens. Because the Khans of Mongolia in those days honored all religious faiths, a total of 12 worshipping places of the Christian, Buddhist and Islam faiths actively held services. Karakorum was a great center for metalwork and other handicrafts. The city had an iron and steel foundry well advanced for its time. The most beautiful part of the city was the palace in the southwestern sector. Within the city wall and inside a wall of its own was the 'Myriad Peace' palace of Ogedei Khan; surrounded by the residences of the princes and noblemen. The main building of the palace was founded upon a specially landscaped dais; its main hall was floored with green enameled flat bricks; and the roof covered with red and green enamel tiles. In the southern section of the main hall was a silver tree-fountain, crowned with a silver figure of a man blowing a trumpet. At festival times, a beautiful sound would be heard as four kinds of delicious drink poured from four dragons' heads facing in four directions from the trunk of the tree, and flowed down into silver vessels placed there to receive them. The layout of the city of Karakorum and the architecture of the buildings combine the very best of city planning of the nomadic Mongols and of eastern and western architecture. Evidence of other early Mongolian cities of this time is still being discovered and researched. At the beginning of the 20th century there were more than 700 temples and monasteries in Mongolia. Every single one of these had its own particularities and all were exceptional examples of oriental architecture. In Mongolian architecture the frame of the building is made of wood but other materials are also used, such as felt, bricks and stone, and the main wooden props are set in stone foundations. The influence of the nomadic lifestyle is plain to see in the architecture of Buddhist religious structures and dwelling places. This is why it is so convenient to use the 'Mongol ger' (dwelling of Mongolian nomads), which can be taken down and re-erected, as a temple hall. The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent. As parts were added to the upper and side parts of the 'ger' so architecture acquired new material. As the 'ger' changed in this way, ger-shaped buildings emerged. From early times Mongolian architecture has shown the influence of the architecture of those countries with which it has had closest cultural relations: India, Tibet and China. The science of architecture appeared with the teachings of Buddhism, and 18th and 19th century writings contain a wealth of theoretical information on architectural ways and means, principles and measurements. Mongolians adopted a nomadic pastoral economy, they did not build towns or villages. And yet we know from archaeological research and from written documents that peoples of the Mongol origin were establishing towns about 2000 years ago and that they were erecting buildings of a very distinctive architecture. Archaeological evidence of more than 200 ancient towns has so far been discovered on the Mongolian territory. The 13th-century capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, is a special example of Mongolia's early towns and is attracting attention from scholars in many countries. The city was built in 1220 on the orders of Genghis Khan and was founded on the site of a city previously occupied during the Uighur period. It is said that the work went on until the time of Ogedei Khan when in 1235, the outer wall was built and the great 'Myriad Peace' palace was erected. Not only was Karakorum the administrative, industrial and cultural capital of the Mongol Empire, it was also an important crossroads between the eastern and western worlds.   Lake Hovsgol Mongolia Wilderness of Mongolia - land of the big sky and home of the nomads, from our two sites by Lake Hovsgol in the heart of the Hovsgol National Park. Lake Hovsgol Mongolia Mongolia remains one of the last great adventure destinations in Asia. Located between China and Russia, it is three times the size of France, yet with a population of only 2.6 million, is one of the most sparsely inhabited countries in the world. It is also one of the highest countries in the world with an average elevation of 1580 metres - the highest peak, Tavanbogd Uul, at 4374 metres, has a magnificent glacier that towers over Mongolia, Russia and China. Between the peaks lay austere deserts, but elsewhere Mongolia has numerous saltwater and freshwater lakes, the largest of which is Lake Hovsgol. The Gobi Desert dominates the southern third of Mongolia, where snow can sometimes still be seen as late as April - the Mongolian climate is extreme with long subarctic winters. But, with over 260 sunny days a year, it is also known as the 'Land of the Blue Sky'. With a complex, colourful history and from a vast empire during the period of Mongol conquest under Chinggis (Genghis) and Kublai Khan, Mongolia, formerly known as Outer Mongolia (Inner Mongolia is governed by China), is now an independent democratic nation. The Mongolian way of life is nomadic and despite some urbanisation, the traditions of the steppes live on. Most Mongolians continue to live in gers, large white felt tents that can be moved easily and have a universal layout. Culturally rich and diverse, Mongolia's paintings, music and literature are dominated by Tibetan Buddhism and nomadism. Freedom of religion was restored in 1990 seeing a revival of Buddhism and other religions. Mongolian, the official language, is a member of the Ural-Altaic family of languages, which includes Finnish, Turkish, Kazak, Uzbek and Korean. The Lake Hovsgol Region This is a protected area, next to the Siberian frontier, composing 100,000 sq. km of mountains, golden larch forest, verdant pasture and meadowland, profuse with wild flowers and laced with rivers of crystal waters. Open to foreign visitors for only ten years, since the end of Soviet influence in 1990, Mongolia's Hovsgol National Park is a land of complex environments and cultures. Mountains climbing to nearly 3,000m, their flanks a luxuriant tapestry of greens and russet browns, limpid river and lake waters, vast open grassy spaces and fragrant conifer forests under an ocean canopy of the bluest sky you ever saw - the blues varying in intensity with the fluctuations of the sun's colour. After rain the lake is wreathed in mist, overhung with dramatic cloud formations, and very often a rainbow of the most intense chromes. This is a unique region in which you can see both the camels of the Gobi and the reindeer of the Taiga. Five Mongolian ethnic groups, Buriat, Khalk, Darhat, Uriangkhai and Dukha (Tsaatan) meet here and Shamanism has a strong influence. The lake lies at 1645m, stretching 130km from the village of Hatgal at the southern tip up to the mountains of the Russian border in the north; it is a rift valley formed by volcanic activity and is 262m deep. The water in the lake is some of the purest fresh water in the world and the outlet, the Egiin Gol joins the Selenge River flowing onto Lake Baikal in Russia. Along the western shore of the lake are the Horidal Saridag Mountains, these rise to 3000m and are inhabited by Ibex and Argali wild sheep. Wild boar, wolves and deer live in the larch forests and wildflower meadows that flank the mountains and run down to the lakeside. The wet meadows and lagoons along the shore are important for waterfowl and the area is rich in bird life. The highest mountain of Hovsgol is Monkh Saridag, 3491m at the north end of the lake and part of the Sayan Mountain range that forms the border with Siberia. Over the mountains to the west is the Darhat Valley, a land of lakes and rivers teeming with fish, surrounded by mountains and forested hills. This is the source of the mighty Yenisei River, which flows across Russia to the Arctic Ocean. At the north end of the Darhat Valley the great Siberian Taiga Forest begins. This is the land of the Tsaatan people, who still live their traditional way of life, living in tepees and herding their reindeer. To the east of the lake are extensive forests and rolling hills. Here the medical hot springs of Bolnain Rashaan can be found, with pools ranging in temperature from 30C to 50C.   Geographical Descriptions     The Land Mongolia is one of the few countries in the temperate belt of the Northern Hemisphere with vast territory, perfect ecosystem and virgin land. Largely unknown to the rest of the world until recent years, Mongolia's unique combination of diverse landscapes, unspoiled habitat, and rare wild plant and animal species, clear water and fresh air has started to attract international nature conservation organizations and has become the subject of growing international attention. Mongolia is ranked as the seventh largest country in Asia for its territory, which covers an area of 603,899 square miles (1,564,100 sq.km.), larger than the overall combined territory of Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy. Mongolia is the largest land-locked country. Mongolia lies between 87° 44'E and 119° 56'E Longitude and between 41° 35'-44'N and 52° 09'N Latitude in the North of Central Asia. Mongolia is bordered with Russia to the North, China to the East, South and West. Its total borderline is 5,072 miles (8,162 km.) long, 2,166 miles (3,485 km.) of which is with Russia and 2,906 miles (4,677 km.) is with China. The territory of Mongolia extends 1,486 miles (2,392 km.) from the Mongol Altai Mountains in the West to the East and 782 miles (1,259 km.) from the Soyon mountain ranges in the North to the Gobi desert in the South. The nearest body of ocean connected water to Mongolia is the Yellow Sea, 435 miles (700 km) away in the East. Mongolia is divided into six basic natural zones, differing in climate, landscape, soil, flora and fauna.   High Mountain Zone Mongolia is a mountainous country. Through the high mountain zone, which includes the highest elevations of these ranges, makes up only about 5 percent of Mongolian territory, average elevation of the country is quite high, at 5,184 feet (1,580 m.) above sea level. In the Far Western Altai, Khuiten Peak in the top parts of Tavan Bogd Mountains reaches 14,350 feet (4,374 m.), the highest point in the country. Altai, Khangai and Khentii mountain ranges and the Khuvsgul Mountains are higher than the height of the forest zone. Many mountain areas of Mongolia show signs of previous Ice Ages, with U-shaped valleys and boulders left behind by retreating glaciers. The climate in the high mountain zone is extremely cold, and there is a short growing season. Located above tree line, the zone is characterized by tundra, alpine-sedge meadows, highland swamps, and lichen-covered boulder fields.   Taiga (forest) Zone Taiga zone which covers 5 percent of Mongolian territory occurs only in northern Mongolia, where it is found in the Khentii Mountains, in the mountainous terrain around Lake Khuvsgul, back part of Tarvagatai mountain range, first higher place near Orkhon river and some parts of Khan Khukhii   mountain range. The taiga zone experiences more precipitation (12 to 16 inches annually) and lower temperatures than most of Mongolia, therefore plant growing period is comparatively short. Stepping considerably affects the edge of Taiga zone and steppe elements penetrated to sides and along wide trenches of shorter mountains.   Forest Steppe Zone The forest steppe zone covers about 25 percent of the territory, and is one of the most heavily populated areas in Mongolia. The forest steppe zone occurs in the northern frontier of Central Asian prairie steppe and desert and southern frontier of Eastern Siberian forests Khentii, Khangai branch mountainous, the Mongolian Altai Mountains occurs in the eastern frontier, in the Orkhon and Selenge river basins, and in the Khyangan mountains. This zone is the real example of steppe and forests coexist in mountainous area and affect each other. Watershed of the world occurs in the zone and besides this haphazard usage from the forests is dangerous for convicting the zone into mountainous steppe zone. Its pastures, wood, and water make it an important area for herders and their livestock.   Steppe Zone Steppe covers nearly the entire far-eastern part of Mongolia, extending west in a narrowing band just south of Khangai and Khan Khukhii Mountains all the way to the Depression of the Great Lakes. Mongolia's steppe lies in the eastern part of the vast plain that begins in Eastern Europe and reaches to the steppes of Manchuria. The steppe zone includes a distinctive group of flora and fauna. In the central and western areas of the country, the steppe provides many of the nation's most important grazing lands for domestic livestock. The steppe is vulnerable to impacts from overgrazing, agriculture, roads and other human activities.   Desert Steppe Zone Desert steppe occupies a large band, more than 20 percent of Mongolia's area, extending across the country between the steppe and desert zones. This zone includes the Depression of the Great Lakes, the Valley of the lakes, and most of the area between the Khangai and Altai mountain ranges, as well as the eastern Gobi area. The zone includes many low-lying areas, soils with salt pans, and small ponds. The climate is arid with frequent droughts and annual precipitation of 4-5 inches (100-125 mm.)     Desert Zone The Gobi is one of the great deserts in the world, occupying much of the southern Mongolia and northeastern China and composing the northern part of Central Asian deserts. Starkly beautiful, the expanses of the fabled Gobi are rugged and inhospitable. Vegetation is sparse here, and the zone displays a remarkable variety, from rocky mountain massifs to the flat pavement-like areas of the super-arid desert, from poplar-fringed oases to vast out wash plains and areas of sand dunes. These areas provide habitat for many threatened species of Mongolia, including the wild camel, Gobi bear, and wild ass. Climate is extreme. Precipitation may fall only once every two to three years and averages less than 4 inches (100 mm.) annually. Temperatures climb as high as 104° F (40° C) in summer, and fall as low as 104° F (-40° C) in winter.   Naadam Festival   The Naadam festival, or eriyn gurvan nadaam, is the biggest festival of the year for Mongolians. Usually occuring in July, it runs for three days in all parts of the country and highlights the greatest athletes in horse racing, archery, and wrestling: Mongolia's most popular sports. Women participate in all but the wrestling category. The word Naadam means game or competition in Mongolian. Competitions take place days on the first two and merry-making is reserved for the third. This festival has been held for centuries as a form of memorial celebration, as an annual sacrificial ritual honoring various mountain gods or to celebrate a community endeavor. The festivities kick off with a colorful parade of athletes, monks, soldiers marching in perfect uniformity, musicians performing powerful military tunes, and Mongolians dressed in Chinggis-style warrior uniforms.   Horse races Mongolians have a high regard for horses since, for centuries, they have relied on them for transport, sustenance, and companionship. During the races, up to 1,000 horses can be chosen to compete. The horse races are broken down into six categories based on the age of the horses.     For example, two-year-old horses race for 10 miles (16 kilometers) and seven-year-olds for 17 miles (30 kilometers). The race is conducted on the open grasslands with no set track or course. Children from the ages of 5 to 13 are chosen as jockeys since this guarantees that the race tests the horses skill and not the riders. The small size of the jockeys also increases the horses' endurance. Even still, jockeys train for months before Naadam and the horses are given a special diet. The winning jockey is praised with the title tumny ekh or "leader of ten thousand" and the five winning horses are talked about and revered in poetry and music. The losing two-year-old horse is also allot special attention by being serenaded with a song. Music is very important before the race too, as the audience sings traditional songs and the jockeys sing a pre-race song called a gingo.     Archery The sport of archery originated around the 11th century, during the time of Khanate warfare. Contestants dress in traditional costumes and use a bent bow constructed of horn, bark, and wood. The arrows, made from willow branches and vulture feathers are shot at round, leather targets with gray, yellow or red rings. Men must stand 75 meters and women 60 meters from the target. Judges, standing near the targets, assess each shot with a cry, called a uukhai, and a raised hand. The winning archer, or mergen, is the one who hits the targets the most times.   Wrestling The wrestling competitions begin around noon on the first day of the festival and end on the second day. They are quit unlike American wrestling matches in form an have other two important differences. First, there are no weight divisions. A small wrestler can be pitted against someone two   times his weight. This can lead to some very interesting matches. Second, there are no time limits. The loser of a match is the wrestler who falls first. A fall is when any part of a wrestlers body, except his hands or feet, touches the ground. Titles are given to winners of a number of rounds: Falcon to those winning five rounds, Elephant for seven rounds, and Lion to the one winning the whole tournament. One elite wrestler was once given the title "Eye-Pleasing Nationally Famous Mighty and Invincible Giant." Wrestlers honor the judges and their attendants with a dance called devekh, or eagle dance. The winner also performs the eagle dance after the loser of the bout takes off his jacket and walks under the winner's arm. Wrestlers wear small, over the shoulder vests called zodog, and snug shorts called shuudag. The heavy, traditional Mongolian boots are called gutuls.     Crowds greet Dalai Lama on Tibetan leader's first visit to Mongolia in seven years By Audra Ang ULAN BATOR, Mongolia, Tuesday, November 05, 2002 (AP) -- Greeted by adoring throngs and serenaded by cymbals and horns, the Dalai Lama met with monks at Mongolia's largest Buddhist monastery Tuesday, kicking off his first visit to the northeast Asian nation in seven years. Temperatures dropped to 5 degrees below zero as the leader of Tibetan Buddhism, wearing his traditional robe with one arm bare to the chill wind, made his way through Gandantegchillen Monastery in the Mongolian capital. "We believe that the Dalai Lama is the Buddha. I am very happy and excited to be here," said Ananda, 19, a young man who uses only one name. He traveled from Russia this week to see the spectacle. Hundreds of Mongolians, their faces bundled in fur against the cold, jostled and held up cameras in hopes of a glimpse of the Dalai Lama. When he arrived, he strode along a multicolored carpet flanked by legions of monks from the monastery, known commonly by its shorter name, Gandan. Other monks prostrated in his path as he walked forward, shielded from the wind by a yellow silk umbrella and a hat. Horns blew, cymbals clanged and drums beat as he made his way toward a private meeting in the monastery. "He is the Buddha of compassion," said Lhawang, a Tibetan monk who teaches at the monastery and has seen the Dalai Lama nine times. "I feel so strongly, I cry every time." Both Tibetans and Mongolians follow the tantric school of Buddhism, which recognizes the Dalai Lama as a high spiritual authority. A 16th-century Mongol king is thought to have bestowed the first Dalai Lama title -- a designation that means "Ocean of Wisdom." "It is cold on the street, but I feel warm inside because I'm going to see my great teacher," said Thubten Choenyi, a Buddhist nun who was waiting outside the airport. "I have been praying day and night since I heard he was coming." Mongolia shares strong religious ties to Tibet and has been rediscovering its Buddhist heritage since the end of communist rule in 1990. Some 90 percent of Mongolia's 2.4 million people consider themselves Buddhists. The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in India, has visited Mongolia five times, most recently in 1995. He had planned to come in September, but was blocked when Russia and South Korea refused him transit visas, possibly to avoid angering China. There are no direct flights to Mongolia from India. Late Monday night, the Dalai Lama arrived in Mongolia and was greeted by hundreds of maroon-robed monks and members of the faithful who thronged the airport. The 12-mile route from the Ulan Bator airport to the capital city was lined with police, and some 200 to 300 officers stood guard at the airport. The visit seemed likely to draw angry protests from China, which regards the Dalai Lama as a political schemer bent on ending Chinese rule in Tibet. Chinese communist forces occupied Tibet in 1951 and Beijing says the Himalayan region has been Chinese territory for centuries. The Dalai Lama fled into exile in India after a failed uprising in 1959 and travels frequently to conduct Buddhist ceremonies and seek support for his campaign for Tibetan political and cultural rights.